HANDOUTS FOR LBST 499 "ETHNIC MUSIC AND CULTURE"
Carl Rahkonen
GUIDE TO THE TERM PAPER
I. The Proposal: Two things are necessary:
1. You must tell what type of music you will study. This can be any type of music that interests you.
2. You must tell what specific aspects you will study about the music you have chosen. This can be history, style, behavioral aspects, etc. I have listed some possible aspects below. You do not need to choose from this list. These are merely examples of what I’m looking for:
1. History: How has this music come into
being? How has it evolved?
2. Style: What makes this music sound the way it does? What are the
“rules” for its sound?
3. Music event: What are the “rules” for the performance of
this music? What sets the music event apart from everyday life?
4. Music behaviors: cues (things used to synchronize performers, audiences)
kinesics (movement), proxemics (space) and temporal aspects (time).
5. Transmission: How is this music is passed on, or learned?
6. Ethnicity and identity: How does this music serve as a symbol of culture?
7. Contexts: Why is a specific music performed in a specific time and place?
For example, symphony music in concert halls, rock or jazz in bars, or marching
bands at football games. Also, why is there special music for year cycle
events (Christmas, New Years, Halloween etc.) and for life cycle events
(birthdays, marriages, funerals etc.)?
8. Communication: How is meaning conveyed from performer to audience?
9. Tradition: What stays the same and has changed in this music?
Why?
10. Fusion: How have various styles of music combined to make new styles?
II. The Bibliography:
Then second step is to find out what other
scholars have written about this type of music. You should visit the
library to find books, journal articles and other scholarly publications.
You should also search the Web for information pertinent to your topic.
You should organize this information in a formal annotated bibliography:
i.e. a proper bibliographical citation, followed by an annotation in your own
words telling what information is in the source and how it pertains to your
topic.
III. The Outline:
After you have gathered your information, you
must organize it. This is done by drawing together information that is
similar, or that seems to be connected. The result will be several
"groups" of information, which can be arranged in a logical
sequence. This sequence is a framework upon which you can write your
paper. The purpose of an outline is to make order out of chaos.
Order comes from examining information closely, asking questions about it,
thinking about it, and finding those things that are important.
Hopefully, this process will lead to an analysis, in which you not only tell
what others have written about this music, but also what you think it means.
IV. The Final Paper:
The final paper will be graded on four categories:
1. Statement of purpose: You must state near the beginning of the paper what you are studying. This includes: What type of music and which aspect. If you have done your proposal well, you already have this part done.
2. Description: You must describe what you found in the literature.
3. Analysis: You have just described what others have said. Now tell what you think. This is speculative. In other words, you are expressing you own educated opinion. This should be the conclusion of your paper.
4. Technical matters: You must use correct grammar, spelling and writing style (see “Rahkonen’s writing rules”):
a. The paper must be typewritten or
letter-quality printed.
b. Do NOT justify the right margin.
c. Double space throughout.
d. Leave at least 1" margins on all sides.
e. Do NOT leave "widows" or "orphans" (a single line
of a paragraph at the top or bottom of a page.
f. PROOF-READ CAREFULLY! Misspellings, missing letters, extra
spaces all count off (2 points each).
g. Read the paper out loud -- so you can find anything that doesn't make
sense.
RAHKONEN'S WRITING RULES
1. Compose on the level of the paragraph.
a. Each paragraph should have a topic sentence.
b. Each subsequent sentence should relate to the topic sentence.
c. Keep the same verb tense throughout the paragraph.
d. Avoid one-sentence paragraphs.
2. Use standard word order in sentences:
(subject-> verb-> object).
a. Avoid passive voice. "The ball was hit by the boy." = "The boy hit the ball."
3. Use standard plain English.
a. avoid jargon.
b. avoid colloquialism.
4. Don't overstate your position.
a. Don't present conjecture as fact.
5. Don't write a blow-by-blow account.
6. Write at the level of your subject and at the level of your audience.
DEFINITIONS OF MUSIC:
Edgard Varese: "Music is organized sound"
John Cage: "Music is organized silence"
Dr. Ruth Stone: "Music is organized sound with its accompanying organized silence"
The Basongye of Africa call music "byombwa" (see Merriam 1964)
a.
must be produced by humans
b. must be organized
c. must have continuity in time
Sources:
a.
composed
b. borrowed
c. supernatural
Dr. Irving Godt
1. Noise is unwanted sound.
2. Music is HUMANLY ORGANIZED sound, but
3. organized WITH INTENT
4. into a recognizable AESTHETIC ENTITY
5. as a directed COMMUNICATION from maker
to a listener (usually through
the medium of a performer or ensemble).
The birds and the bees may make pretty sounds (I
like them as much as you do), and so can a dripping faucet, but they do not fit
this definition.
Dr. Carl Rahkonen: "Music is
any acoustical phenomenon which a person or group of people decide to call
music"
GUIDE TO VIEWING ETHNOGRAPHIC FILMS
"We learn early on how to get
information from books, but we are accustomed to looking at films only for
entertainment. The great challenge of using ethnographic film for
learning about another culture lies in this: how one can learn to see,
and, in seeing, learn."
Karl G. Heider,
"Ethnographic films are films which
endeavor to interpret the behavior of people of one culture to persons of
another culture by using shots of people doing precisely what they would have
been doing if the camera were not present."
Walter Goldschmidt
I. We must realize that a film maker can never film everything that happens in an event. Therefore, what we see on the screen is a selected sample of the total behavior present at an event.
II. Just as in reading a book or article, we should try to pick out the main points of the total behavior present at an event.
III. Beware of distortions which may have taken place in making a film. For example:
1. Distortion of Behavior: the mere presence of a film crew at an event may have an inadvertent effect on behavior.
2. Distortion in the Film Making Process:
a. Remember, films show just a select sample of the total behaviors of an event. These samples (scenes) are combined by editing, which may distort the overall continuity of the event.
b. The real time of the event may not be the same as time in the film.
c. A specific behavior may be shown out of its cultural and/or physical context, which may distort its meaning.
d. The film maker always appears in the film, in one way or another. Beware of the film maker's prejudices. The film presents "truth" only as perceived by the film maker.
Watch and enjoy ethnographic films, but at the same time, be aware of their limitations.
Also examine the following works on
reserve: Feld 1976 ; Heider 1976.
MUSIC EVENT
Definition (according to Professor Ruth M. Stone):
"A music event is the sum total of
behavior and sound that is part of a finite sphere of communication which the
participants understand to be an event."
Components of a music event:
participants in an event and their roles,
including audience.
(include also spiritual participants)
--hierarchical and/or equal roles of
participants
--relation of performance roles to life roles
musical instruments--as extensions of participants / as symbols.
markers--signs, both verbal and non-verbal, of
the beginning of
an event and the end of an event. These things tend to set
apart a music event from everyday life.
cues--signs, both verbal and non-verbal, during
sections of the
event itself. (see Merriam ch. 6) These things are fre-
quently used to synchronize actions in the event.
kinesics--body movements, attitudes, gestures
which are assumed
to communicate. (body language) (see Merriam ch. 6)
proxemics--space relationships between
people. Interpersonal
space; also arrangements of participants in the event.
Temporal aspects of event:
clock time--established by quantitative measurements of a clock
social time--established by the quality of social interaction
personal time--individual perception of time
calendar time--cyclical time, determining yearly
festivals and celebrations
GUIDE TO LISTENING
Listening is not the same as hearing. Listening is an active process in which a person concentrates on and thinks about what he or she is hearing.
Never try to make sense of a piece in
isolation. Try to find out as much as possible about the piece.
Always read the accompanying documentation carefully to guide you in your
listening. When listening to a new piece of music, you want to pick out
stylistic features which will help you recognize that piece if you heard it
again. To help do this, you can ask yourself the following questions when
listening:
1. If it is vocal:
a. Is there only one vocalist (solo)
or many (ensemble) or is there an alternation between solo and ensemble?
b. Are the voice(s) male or female,
or a mixture of the two?
c. Are the vocalists using words or
vocables?
d. What is the timbre of the
voice(s)?
1. tight/restricted,
2. loose/open,
3. flat/opaque (you may use your own categories; however, your meaning must be
clear).
e. Is falsetto used, or other vocal
effects?
f. Is there a hierarchical
(solo/accompaniment) or equal relationship(s) among voices?
2. If it is instrumental:
a. How many instruments are used?
b. What kind(s) of instrument(s) are
used?
c. Is there a hierarchical or equal
relationship among the instruments?
3. If it is a mixture of vocal and instrumental:
a. What is the relationship(s) among
voice(s) and instrument(s)?
II. What is distinctive about the melodic contour?
III. Rhythmic factors:
1. What is the meter?
2. What is the tempo?
3. Are there changes in meter or tempo?
4. Are there two or more meters or tempos happening
simul-
taneously?
5. Is there a syncopation or hemiola?
IV. Also refer to the terminology on the Structures and Textures handout.
TERMS OF MUSICAL PITCH
INTERVAL: the distance between two pitches.
Harmonic: simultaneous sounding of two or more pitches.
Melodic: two or more pitches which happen in sequence at different times.
MELODIC CONTOUR: the shape of a melody. It may be rising, descending, arc, terraced, jagged, or any of many other possibilities.
SCALE: a set of discrete pitches which are used
as the basic material of a music. In most cases, the music comes before
the scale.
RANGE: the largest interval in a scale.
OCTAVE: the fundamental frequency (pitch) ratio of 2:1. The interval of an octave is common to almost all musics. Music scales are differ among cultures because of the various ways in which the octave is divided. Music scales may be thought of as patterns of intervals within the octave.
Examples of scales:
Diatonic: (8 tone, Western
scales) Major and Minor.
Chromatic: (12 tone, Western scale)
Pentatonic: (5 tone) common in Western and Non-Western music.
Non-Western Scales
Microtonal Scales
TONALITY = TONAL CENTER: one central tone (pitch) around which a scale, piece, or section of a piece is centered.
MODULATION: a change in tonality or tonal center.
CONSONANCE: the degree to which two or more harmonic pitches blend together.
DISSONANCE: the degree to which two or more harmonic pitches separate apart.
CADENCE: a harmonic or melodic occurrence at the
end of a work, or section of a work, which conveys a feeling of
finality or conclusion.
TERMS OF MUSICAL RHYTHM
RHYTHM: "the perception of movement
in music, with a strong implication of both regularity and
differentiation."
RHYTHM refers to all phenomena relating to duration and accent.
BEAT or PULSE: temporal unit in music.
TEMPO: speed of the beat.
METER (METRICAL): a pattern of fixed temporal
units (called
beats) by which the time span of a piece of
music, or a section thereof is measured.
a. ISOMETRICAL: every time value is
a multiple or
fraction of a beat, with regularly reoccurring accents.
b. POLYMETRICAL (MULTI-): every time value is a multiple or fraction of a beat, with no regular, reoccurring accent.
c. NON-METRICAL or "FREE" RHYTHM: time measurement is by groups of notes, but the relative length of the notes themselves is not measured.
MEASURE: a group of beats (units of musical time) the first of which normally bears an accent. Such a group may number 2, 3, 4, or occasionally 5 or more beats.
TIME SIGNATURE: the time (meter) is indicated at the beginning of a piece by two numbers, one above the other; the lower indicates the unit of measurement, the upper the number of such units in a measure.
SYNCOPATION: the temporary displacement of regular meter and accent.
a. HEMIOLA: a syncopation with the relationship of 3:2 or 2:3.
COUNTERPOINT: music consisting of two or more
lines that sound simultaneously. At certain points in the music the lines
meet, and at other points they do not. Practically synonymous with
polyphony.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
The inventors of the most widely known system of classifying musical instruments were Curt Sachs and Erich M. von Hornbostel in their 1914 article "Systematic der Musikinstrumente" [Classifi-cation of Musical Instruments]. Their taxonomy is based on the principle of what is vibrating medium of each instrument. The primary classes and sub-classes are listed below:
I. Aerophones
A. Flutes a. end blown
b. side blown
B. Reeds a. single reed
b. double reed
C. Lip vibrated a. cylindrical
b. conical
D. Free reed (harmonica, accordion, khen ...)
E. Free (bullroar ...)
II. Chordophones
A. Lutes
a. plucked
b. bowed
C. Zithers
a. dulcimers
b. psalteries
B. Lyres
D. Harps
E. Bows
III. Membranophones
A. Single head sub-divided by body shape
B. Double head sub-divided by body shape
(cylindrical, conical, barrel, goblet...)
IV. Idiophones
sub-divided by method of playing (shaken, stamped, struck, bowed,
plucked...)
Added to the Sachs-von Hornbostel classification in the 1950s:
V. Electrophones (where the sound is generated by electronic means)
Beware of instruments which can fit into two or more classes, such as the tambourine (idiophone and membranophone) or the banjo (chordophone lute, but also arguably a membranophone)
See Musical Instruments of the World: An
Illustrated Encyclopedia (New York: Facts on File, 1976) to identify unknown
instruments using the Sachs-von Hornbostel classification system.
In the Music Library under: (REF) ML 102 .I5 D5.
Asian Musical
Instruments
|
In English |
|
|
|
|
Mouth Organ |
Sheng |
Sho |
Khaen, Kaen |
|
Long Zither |
Ch’in, Qin |
Koto |
dan tranh ( |
|
Large Lute |
Pipa |
|
pin, sung |
|
Bowed Lute |
Erh-hu |
------- |
Tro-u, Saw-bip |
ETHNIC MUSIC
IN THE
Note: Outline below based on the article:
"Overview: European-American Music." In
Dictionary: Ethnic = a social group within a culture …on the basis of complex often variable traits including religious, linguistic, ancestral or physical characteristics…
Rahkonen: “Ethnic” often used to refer to specific groups within a race, nationality or culture.
Therefore persons of African, Asian or Hispanic
origin are frequently (and incorrectly) not referred to as
“ethnic,” but
sub-groups within these races may be considered “ethnic.”
I.
a. Shift from immigrant identity to ethnic identity
b. We’re not a “melting-pot”
but a “mosaic”
II. First Generation:
Ethnic and Racial Immigrant demographics, as
taken from the
|
RACE |
NATIONALITY |
LANGUAGE |
RELIGION |
|
white |
German |
German |
Catholic |
|
white |
Irish |
Gaelic/English |
Catholic |
|
white |
Polish |
Polish |
Catholic |
|
white |
Italian |
Italian |
Catholic |
|
white |
Slovenian |
Slovenian |
Catholic |
A. somewhat isolated by language
B. social occasions within their own ethnic group
C. Ethnic groups more heterogeneous than in Old World
D. Regional identity becomes ethnic identity
III. Second Generation
|
RACE |
NATIONALITY |
LANGUAGE |
RELIGION |
|
white |
German-American |
English (German) |
Catholic |
|
white |
Irish-American |
English |
Catholic |
|
white |
Polish-American |
English (Polish) |
Catholic |
|
white |
Italian-American |
English (Italian) |
Catholic |
|
white |
Slovenian-American |
English- Slovenian |
Catholic |
A. Less isolated linguistically -- common
language, English
B. More interaction outside their ethnic group
C. Duel identity, both ethnic and American -- a shift back and forth in
identity
D. More in common with other outsiders through nationality, religion,
occupation, etc.
III. Third and Subsequent Generations:
|
RACE |
NATIONALITY |
LANGUAGE |
RELIGION |
|
white |
American (German) |
English |
Catholic |
|
white |
American (Irish) |
English |
Catholic |
|
white |
American (Polish) |
English |
Catholic |
|
white |
American (Italian) |
English |
Catholic |
|
white |
American (Slovenian) |
English |
Catholic |
A. Far fewer speakers of the original ethnic
language
B. Multiple ethnic identities through intermarriage
C. Typically an increase in interest in their ethnic identity
D. Choosing an ethnic identity
IV. Institutions supporting ethnic identity:
A. Religious institutions
B. Ethnic societies
C. Festivals
V. European music in America
A. Hybridization
a. Combinations with other ethnic musics
b. Combinations with American popular music
B. Genres
1. Vocal Music
a. Almost everyone knew songs
b. Most significant songs were in the original language
c. Songs about the immigrant experience
2. Instrumental Music
a. Most frequently associated with dance
-- Polka an important ethnic genre
b. Some to accompany vocal music
c. Musical instruments associated with ethnic groups
a. tamburitza Sebians
and Croats
b. button-box accordion Slovenians
c. hardingfele
Norwegians
d. bagpipes Scotts
e. kantele Finns
d. Instruments frequently have symbolic significance
e. Many ethnic groups have similar instruments with similar
symbolisms.
C. Contexts
1. Rituals in Old World become drama in
2. Year Cycle events
3. Life Cycle Events
D. Recording Industry
1. Recorded versions became the “standard” versions
A. community expected “live” music to sound like
the recordings
B. new musicians learned their music from the recordings
2. American recordings even changed the
traditions in the Old Country (example: Michael Coleman’s Irish fiddle
recordings)
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