Since the beginning of time, exchange and trade have played
an important role in the development of civilizations. They function as a mechanism that
allows individuals, cities and empires the opportunity to grow beyond the natural
resources available to them. While exchange can refer to the transfer of numerous items
such as goods, services, ideas, or even customs, trade is usually defined as the
exchanging of material goods or commodities. In order to make this analysis of trade
manageable, I will limit the study chronologically from the year AD 100 to 700, a time
frame typically viewed by modern scholars as a period of declining trade activity (Finley
1973), (Jones 1974), (Hopkins 1980). The intention of my study will be to determine the
scale and nature of trade in the Eastern Mediterranean, as well as its importance to the
economy of that area. In order to answer this question my study will focus on the nature
of trade, its direction, its volume, the goods or commodities being traded, the
relationship of this trade to local and global economies, and its role in the
metamorphosis of Late Antiquity.
Background
Three differing modes of exchange have been identified by anthropologists:
reciprocity, market exchange, and redistribution (Polyani, Arensberg, and Pearson 1957).
Reciprocity is the exchange of goods between individuals for mutually acceptable terms.
Market exchange results when a central selling point, such as a market, is established for
the buying and selling of goods. Redistribution occurs when an organization gathers the
goods at a central point and then redistributes these materials as needed to outlying
areas. Since the term trade can encompass a wide variety of different meanings, it is
important to establish a definition for what I designate as "trade." For the
purposes of this study trade is defined as the exchange of goods for other goods, monetary
remuneration, or services and can be performed on a local, intermediate, or long distance
level.
Literary Sources
The use of different types of literary sources has been important to this study. The works
of ancient historians and chroniclers, such as Procopius and Theophanes, have been
examined for all indications of trade, but particularly for large scale trade. Since few
historians directly address trade in their works, most of the evidence concerning trade
has been incidental information based upon facts mentioned briefly in the texts.. These
works provide two main types of information on trade. First, governmental involvement with
trade and even volume of commercial activity has been evident in the historical accounts.
Secondly, trading routes between specific areas can be discerned by the listing of import
and export goods in the historians writings. Legal sources, such as the Codex
Theodosianus and Codex Justinianus, also show how the government tried to control and use
commercial activities for its gain. Hagiographical sources (the lives of religious
figures), such as that of Saint John the Almsgiver, on the other hand often provide first
hand accounts of trading on a local level, information concerning regional trade, as well
as better understanding of the way religion and trade interconnect.
Archaeological Evidence
Recent scholarship has attempted to use new approaches in determining the extent and
importance of trade. As the amount of archaeological information increases, more scholars
are attempting to use this data to supplement existing evidence, particularly for
questions that lack straightforward answers. While efforts have been made in the past to
utilize archaeological evidence, new methods, most notably the quantification of data,
have helped the modern researcher better interpret the large amounts of available cultural
material (Randsborg 1991), (Duncan-Jones 1974), (Greene 1986). Quantification of data
allows many different items to be analyzed together in the study of trade, permitting a
more accurate comparison of the presence and omission of specific trade goods. Such
quantitative analysis allows patterns and trends to be noted over periods of time both for
general, as well as specific, regions.
One of the archaeological sources most frequently used in examining trade is the study of
pottery and amphorae, the most commonly used containers for seaborne transport. Several
factors contribute to the usefulness in examining the remains of pottery and amphorae. Not
only are they extremely durable, often surviving for thousands of years, but they were
common objects of their time. The art work, design, and fabric of pottery and amphorae
allows the origin of manufacture to be determined, which is useful in determining trading
routes and extent of trade (Peacock and Williams1986), (Pucci 1983).
Another modern source of information is found in nautical archaeology. Shipwrecks provide
data from their cargo and the ship itself. The cargo recovered from a shipwreck can reveal
the ports the ship visited during its voyage. This can help demonstrate trading routes,
commercial links between certain cities, and the type of goods traded. Quantifying the
number and location of wreck sites can also lead to conclusions concerning the importance
of shipping during specific periods and in specific regions. Caution, however, must be
used when doing this type of analysis since a shipwreck might not be representative of the
shipping during their time, or that underwater work in certain areas might be proceeding
faster than in other areas. Shipwrecks, however, will still provide valuable data for this
study (Parker 1984).
Related to the evidence obtained from nautical archaeology is the information that can be
gained from the study of ports and harbors. Similar to landscape archaeology, the study of
the rise and decline of these sites reveals much about trade in the region (Meiggs 1973).
These locations, as opposed to a shipwreck, offer the scholar an opportunity to view
trading activity over a span of years instead of at a fixed point in time. This allows
trends and patterns to be observed for that region and its trading activity. Changes in
buildings, archaeological remains, inscriptions, and art work can be analyzed to determine
the importance of trade in that region.
Approximately 10 to 20 archaeological sites will be examined for their possible
contributions to this study. The archaeological evidence from these sites will be combined
to form a picture of the trading activity conducted in the Eastern Mediterranean. The use
of information from different sites does present a problem. Since the sites were excavated
by various archaeologists using different methods over many years, it will not always be
possible to compare sites on a one to one basis. Another limiting factor is that many
sites are poorly published and their publications fail to contain the raw data needed for
quantitative analysis. This will be balanced by several sites at which I have direct
access to first hand material, such as Isthmia and sites on Cyprus. This archaeological
evidence, when combined with other types of data, such as Mediterranean weather patterns,
will produce a solid pattern of commercial activity.
Methodology
My first step in approaching the question of trade in Late Antiquity was in defining the
chronological and geographical parameters of the study. My research is limited to the time
period AD to 717, a period chosen for several reasons. It was an era of vast change as the
Roman Empire, and its borders in particular, ebbed and flowed. More importantly, this
period has been usually seen in only two ways. Most scholars see this time period as one
in which there was little trade because the economy was tied to agricultural factors.
Other scholars, if they accept that there was commercial activity, believe that this was
disrupted by the Vandals or the Muslims. Both these views are typically based upon prior
scholarship that has gone unquestioned and these assumptions need to be examined to
determine if these two prevailing hypotheses are correct. Geographically my survey is
limited to areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea, starting with Greece and running
clockwise around to Carthage which will be only examined in relation to its trade with the
eastern Mediterranean. This allows me to focus on the trade that flourished in the east.
The first part of my study followed the standard methodology of ancient historians. A
literature search was employed to gather all data dealing with commercial activity. Using
the literary evidence,100 I have created a picture of trading activity during this time
period. Having completed this section, the second stage of my survey has begun.
Archaeological evidence from different sites is being examined to create the
archaeological picture of trade at this time. These sites include Greece, Cyprus, Turkey,
Palestine, Egypt, Libya, and Carthage. One of the main focal points is the study of the
pottery from these sites. The pottery will be examined on an individual site basis as well
as compared against other sites in an attempt to determine relative values of scale. Using
data from the archaeological sites, I believe a trading pattern can be established. While
the sites will reveal information pertinent to the trading activity at that particular
site, the combination of multiple sites allows a more regional view to be created. The
final step will be in reconciling the two pictures (if needed, and I do not believe that
to be the case) and creating one, uniform conclusion. This picture will illustrate the
directional flow of trade, its commodities, and their volume. Based upon this evidence it
will be possible to demonstrate both the importance and nature of trade in the Eastern
Mediterranean.
©Robert Scott Moore, 2002
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